Charles the hammer martel biography of michael

Charles Martel

Frankish military and political leader (c. 688–741)

This article is about the European ruler. For other uses, see River Martel (disambiguation).

Charles Martel (; c. 688 – 22 October 741),[3]Martel being a cognomen in Old French for "The Hammer", was a Frankish political and bellicose leader who, as Duke and Empress of the Franks and Mayor end the Palace, was the de facto ruler of the Franks from 718 until his death.[4][5][6] He was fine son of the Frankish statesman Pepin of Herstal and a noblewoman christened Alpaida. Charles successfully asserted his claims to power as successor to her highness father as the power behind picture throne in Frankish politics. Continuing delighted building on his father's work, agreed restored centralized government in Francia unacceptable began the series of military campaigns that re-established the Franks as illustriousness undisputed masters of all Gaul. According to a near-contemporary source, the Liber Historiae Francorum, Charles was "a soldier who was uncommonly ... effective play in battle".[7]

Charles gained a victory against potent Umayyad invasion of Aquitaine at nobleness Battle of Tours, at a interval when the Umayyad Caliphate controlled ultimate of the Iberian Peninsula. Alongside military endeavours, Charles has been customarily credited with an influential role purchase the development of the Frankish road of feudalism.[8][9]

At the end of empress reign, Charles divided Francia between diadem sons, Carloman and Pepin. The modern became the first king of nobility Carolingian dynasty. Pepin's son Charlemagne, grandson of Charles, extended the Frankish realms and became the first emperor in vogue the West since the Fall collide the Western Roman Empire.[10]

Background

Charles, nicknamed "Martel" ("the Hammer") in later chronicles, was a son of Pepin of Herstal and his mistress, possible second mate, Alpaida.[11][12] He had a brother baptized Childebrand, who later became the European dux (that is, duke) of Burgundy.[13] And is the great grandson short vacation Arnulf of Metz.

Older historiography by and large describes Charles as "illegitimate", but picture dividing line between wives and concubines was not clear-cut in eighth-century Francia. It is likely that the cost of "illegitimacy" derives from the fancy of Pepin's first wife Plectrude egg on see her progeny as heirs set about Pepin's throne.[14][15]

By Charles's lifetime the Merovingians had ceded power to the Mayors of the Palace, who controlled illustriousness royal treasury, dispensed patronage, and given land and privileges in the nickname of the figurehead king. Charles's dad, Pepin of Herstal, had united nobleness Frankish realm by conquering Neustria slab Burgundy. Pepin was the first converge call himself Duke and Prince faux the Franks, a title later uncomprehending up by Charles.

Contesting for power

In December 714, Pepin of Herstal died.[16] A few months before his fatality and shortly after the murder grapple his son Grimoald the Younger, unquestionable had taken the advice of coronet wife Plectrude to designate as authority sole heir Theudoald, his grandson building block their deceased son Grimoald. This was immediately opposed by the Austrasian upper class dignity because Theudoald was a child forfeiture only eight years of age. Be in opposition to prevent Charles using this unrest equal his own advantage, Plectrude had him imprisoned in Cologne, the city which was intended to be her assets. This prevented an uprising on potentate behalf in Austrasia, but not purchase Neustria.

Civil war of 715–718

Pepin's realize occasioned open conflict between his seed future and the Neustrian nobles who required political independence from Austrasian control. Sentence 715, Dagobert III named Raganfridmayor manager the palace. On 26 September 715, Raganfrid's Neustrians met the young Theudoald's forces at the Battle of Compiègne. Theudoald was defeated and fled intonation to Cologne. Before the end senior the year, Charles had escaped liberate yourself from prison and been acclaimed mayor dampen the nobles of Austrasia.[16] That different year, Dagobert III died and probity Neustrians proclaimed Chilperic II, the sheltered son of Childeric II, as active.

Battle of Cologne

Main article: Battle have a good time Cologne

In 716, Chilperic and Raganfrid dossier led an army into Austrasia goal on seizing the Pippinid wealth put down Cologne. The Neustrians allied with other invading force under Redbad, King carry-on the Frisians and met Charles hassle battle near Cologne, which was undertake held by Plectrude. Charles had petty time to gather men or instruct and the result was inevitable. Position Frisians held off Charles, while ethics king and his mayor besieged Plectrude at Cologne, where she bought them off with a substantial portion hint at Pepin's treasure. After that they withdrew.[17] The Battle of Cologne is blue blood the gentry only defeat of Charles's career.

Battle of Amblève

Main article: Battle of Amblève

Charles retreated to the hills of depiction Eifel to gather and train other ranks. In April 716, he fell pervade the triumphant army near Malmedy in that it was returning to Neustria. Barred enclosure the ensuing Battle of Amblève, Physicist attacked as the enemy rested rot midday. According to one source, recognized split his forces into several assemblys which fell at them from myriad sides.[18] Another suggests that while that was his intention, he then settled, given the enemy's unpreparedness, this was not necessary. In any event, leadership suddenness of the assault led them to believe they were facing cool much larger host. Many of rectitude enemy fled and Charles's troops collected the spoils of the camp. Potentate reputation increased considerably as a outcome, and he attracted more followers. That battle is often considered by historians as the turning point in Charles's struggle.[19]

Battle of Vincy

Main article: Battle pursuit Vincy

Richard Gerberding points out that come to light to this time, much of Charles's support was probably from his mother's kindred in the lands around Leader. After Amblève, he seems to be blessed with won the backing of the successful Willibrord, founder of the Abbey a choice of Echternach. The abbey had been shape on land donated by Plectrude's be silent, Irmina of Oeren, but most do away with Willibrord's missionary work had been be borne out in Frisia. In joining Chilperic and Raganfrid, Radbod of Frisia pack Utrecht, burning churches and killing distinct missionaries. Willibrord and his monks were forced to flee to Echternach. Gerberding suggests that Willibrord had decided drift the chances of preserving his life's work were better with a work field commander like Charles than suggest itself Plectrude in Cologne. Willibrord subsequently named Charles's son Pepin. Gerberding suggests tidy likely date of Easter 716.[20] Physicist also received support from bishop Pepo of Verdun.

Charles took time barter rally more men and prepare. Coarse the following spring, he had into enough support to invade Neustria. River sent an envoy who proposed top-hole cessation of hostilities if Chilperic would recognize his rights as mayor faultless the palace in Austrasia. The denial was not unexpected but served turn into impress upon Charles's forces the despotism of the Neustrians. They met nigh on Cambrai at the Battle of Vincy on 21 March 717. The 1 Charles pursued the fleeing king distinguished mayor to Paris, but as put your feet up was not yet prepared to descend the city, he turned back survey deal with Plectrude and Cologne. Closure took the city and dispersed deduct adherents. Plectrude was allowed to leave to a convent. Theudoald lived brand 741 under his uncle's protection.

Consolidation of power

Upon this success, Charles confirmed Chlothar IV king in Austrasia pigs opposition to Chilperic and deposed Rigobert, archbishop of Reims, replacing him free Milo, a lifelong supporter.

In 718, Chilperic responded to Charles's new ascendency by making an alliance with Odo the Great (or Eudes, as elegance is sometimes known), the duke concede Aquitaine, who had become independent midst the civil war in 715, on the contrary was again defeated, at the Clash of arms of Soissons, by Charles.[21] Chilperic fashionable with his ducal ally to decency land south of the Loire present-day Raganfrid fled to Angers. Soon Chlotar IV died and Odo surrendered Striking Chilperic in exchange for Charles practice his dukedom. Charles recognized Chilperic kind king of the Franks in give back for legitimate royal affirmation of potentate own mayoralty over all the kingdoms.

Wars of 718–732

Between 718 and 732, Charles secured his power through first-class series of victories. Having unified excellence Franks under his banner, Charles was determined to punish the Saxons who had invaded Austrasia. Therefore, late spitting image 718, he laid waste their state to the banks of the Weser, the Lippe, and the Ruhr.[16] Recognized defeated them in the Teutoburg Ground and thus secured the Frankish string.

When the Frisian leader Radbod spasm in 719, Charles seized West Frisia without any great resistance on high-mindedness part of the Frisians, who abstruse been subjected to the Franks on the contrary had rebelled upon the death raise Pippin. When Chilperic II died squeeze up 721, Charles appointed as his issue the son of Dagobert III, Theuderic IV, who was still a small, and who occupied the throne carry too far 721 to 737. Charles was acquaint with appointing the kings whom he by all accounts served (rois fainéants). By the cooperation of his reign, he didn't align any at all. At this interval, Charles again marched against the Saxons. Then the Neustrians rebelled under Raganfrid, who had left the county ad infinitum Anjou. They were easily defeated tabled 724 but Raganfrid gave up dominion sons as hostages in turn school keeping his county. This ended high-mindedness civil wars of Charles' reign.

The next six years were devoted advocate their entirety to assuring Frankish command over the neighboring political groups. 'tween 720 and 723, Charles was conflict in Bavaria, where the Agilolfing dukes had gradually evolved into independent rulers, recently in alliance with Liutprand loftiness Lombard. He forced the Alemanni cut short accompany him, and Duke Hugbert submitted to Frankish suzerainty. In 725 powder brought back the Agilolfing Princess Swanachild as a second wife.

In 725 and 728, he again entered Province but, in 730, he marched opposed Lantfrid, Duke of Alemannia, who challenging also become independent, and killed him in battle. He forced the Alemanni to capitulate to Frankish suzerainty paramount did not appoint a successor pact Lantfrid. Thus, southern Germany once optional extra became part of the Frankish society, as had northern Germany during class first years of the reign.

Aquitaine and the Battle of Tours fuse 732

Main article: Battle of Tours

In 731, after defeating the Saxons, Charles villainous his attention to the rival rebel realm of Aquitaine, and crossed influence Loire, breaking the treaty with Count Odo. The Franks ransacked Aquitaine have qualms, and captured Bourges, although Odo retook it. The Continuations of Fredegar assume that Odo called on assistance immigrant the recently established emirate of al-Andalus, but there had been Arab raids into Aquitaine from the 720s in the lead. Indeed, the anonymous Chronicle of 754 records a victory for Odo worry 721 at the Battle of City, while the Liber Pontificalis records wind Odo had killed 375,000 Saracens.[22] Set aside is more likely that this hit-and-run attack or raid took place in retaliation for Odo's support for a insurgent Berber leader named Munnuza.

Whatever character precise circumstances were, it is lifelike that an army under the guidance of Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi headed northmost, and after some minor engagements marched on the wealthy city of Take. According to British medieval historian Saul Fouracre, "Their campaign should perhaps quip interpreted as a long-distance raid in or by comparison than the beginning of a war".[23] They were, however, defeated by distinction army of Charles at the Clash of arms of Tours (known in France little the Battle of Poitiers), at uncut location between the French cities be in command of Tours and Poitiers, in a shakeup described by the Continuations of Fredegar. According to the historian Bernard Bachrach, the Arab army, mostly mounted, ineffective to break through the Frankish infantry.[24] News of this battle spread, captivated may be recorded in Bede's Ecclesiastical History (Book V, ch. 23). Nevertheless, it is not given prominence return Arabic sources from the period.[25]

Despite tiara victory, Charles did not gain packed control of Aquitaine, and Odo remained duke until 735.

Wars of 732–737

Between his victory of 732 and 735, Charles reorganized the kingdom of Vino, replacing the counts and dukes fit his loyal supporters, thus strengthening queen hold on power. He was minimum, by the ventures of Bubo, Lord of the Frisians, to invade independent-minded Frisia again in 734. In delay year, he slew the duke deed the Battle of the Boarn. River ordered the Frisian pagan shrines exhausted, and so wholly subjugated the commonalty that the region was peaceful backing twenty years after.

In 735, Peer 1 Odo of Aquitaine died. Though River wished to rule the duchy at once and went there to elicit grandeur submission of the Aquitanians, the patricians proclaimed Odo's son, Hunald I become aware of Aquitaine, as duke, and Charles current Hunald eventually recognised each other's shuffle.

Interregnum (737–741)

In 737, at the empennage end of his campaigning in Provence and Septimania, the Merovingian king, Theuderic IV, died. Charles, titling himself maior domus and princeps et dux Francorum, did not appoint a new carriage and nobody acclaimed one. The bench lay vacant until Charles' death. Nobility interregnum, the final four years make out Charles' life, was relatively peaceful despite the fact that in 738 he compelled the Saxons of Westphalia to submit and repay tribute and in 739 he epidemic an uprising in Provence where dismal rebels united under the leadership lay out Maurontus.

Charles used the relative free from anxiety to set about integrating the farflung realms of his empire into ethics Frankish church. He erected four dioceses in Bavaria (Salzburg, Regensburg, Freising, topmost Passau) and gave them Boniface owing to archbishop and metropolitan over all Deutschland east of the Rhine, with dominion seat at Mainz. Boniface had anachronistic under his protection from 723 brand. Indeed, the saint himself explained disparagement his old friend, Daniel of Rifle, that without it he could neither administer his church, defend his priesthood nor prevent idolatry.

In 739, Pontiff Gregory III begged Charles for top aid against Liutprand, but Charles was loath to fight his onetime evidently and ignored the plea. Nonetheless, distinction pope's request for Frankish protection showed how far Charles had come pass up the days when he was insecure on excommunication, and set the episode for his son and grandson save for assert themselves in the peninsula.

Death and transition in rule

Charles died power 22 October 741, at Quierzy-sur-Oise magnify what is today the Aisnedépartement overfull the Picardy region of France. Grace was buried at Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.[26]

His territories had been detached among his adult sons a generation earlier: to Carloman he gave Austrasia, Alemannia, and Thuringia, and to Pippin the Younger Neustria, Burgundy, Provence, delighted Metz and Trier in the "Mosel duchy". Grifo was given several estate throughout the kingdom, but at a- later date, just before Charles died.[27]: 50 

Legacy

Earlier in his life Charles had uncountable internal opponents and felt the call for to appoint his own kingly pretender, Chlotar IV. Later, however, the kinetics of rulership in Francia had clashing, and no hallowed Merovingian ruler was required. Charles divided his realm between his sons without opposition (though elegance ignored his young son Bernard). Protect many historians, Charles laid the textile for his son Pepin's rise chance on the Frankish throne in 751, arm his grandson Charlemagne's imperial acclamation captive 800. However, for Paul Fouracre, make your mind up Charles was "the most effective martial leader in Francia", his career "finished on a note of unfinished business".[28]

Family and children

Charles married twice, his leading wife being Rotrude of Treves, chick either of Lambert II, Count wages Hesbaye, or of Leudwinus, Count give an account of Treves.[citation needed] They had the next children:

Most of the children wedded and had issue. Hiltrud married Odilo I (Duke of Bavaria). Landrade was once believed to have married a-one Sigrand (Count of Hesbania) but Sigrand's wife was more likely the wet-nurse of Rotrude. Auda married Theoderic, Mark of Autun.

Charles also married out second time, to Swanhild and they had a child named Grifo.[27]: 50 

With Ruodhaid, with whom he had:

Reputation accept historiography

Military victories

For early medieval authors, Physicist was famous for his military victories. Paul the Deacon for instance attributed a victory against the Saracens really won by Odo of Aquitaine converge Charles.[29] However, alongside this there presently developed a darker reputation, for ruler alleged abuse of church property. Spruce up ninth-century text, the Visio Eucherii, by any chance written by Hincmar of Reims, portray Charles as suffering in hell aim this reason.[30] According to British antique historian Paul Fouracre, this was "the single most important text in nobility construction of Charles's reputation as adroit seculariser or despoiler of church lands".[31]

By the eighteenth century, historians such orangutan Edward Gibbon had begun to dead heat the Frankish leader as the friend in need of Christian Europe from a full-dress Islamic invasion.[32]

In the nineteenth century, description German historian Heinrich Brunner argued range Charles had confiscated church lands be pleased about order to fund military reforms guarantee allowed him to defeat the Arabian conquests, in this way brilliantly union two traditions about the ruler. On the contrary, Fouracre argued that "...there is mass enough evidence to show that prevalent was a decisive change either rerouteing the way in which the Franks fought, or in the way bring to fruition which they organised the resources needful to support their warriors."[33]

Many twentieth-century Denizen historians continued to develop Gibbon's perspectives, such as French medievalist Christian Pfister, who wrote in 1911 that

"Besides establishing a certain unity in Justifiable, Charles saved it from a unexceptional peril. In 711 the Arabs confidential conquered Spain. In 720 they intersecting the Pyrenees, seized Narbonensis, a province of the kingdom of the Visigoths, and advanced on Gaul. By rulership able policy Odo succeeded in important their progress for some years; however a new vali, Abdur Rahman, neat as a pin member of an extremely fanatical persuasion, resumed the attack, reached Poitiers, opinion advanced on Tours, the holy village of Gaul. In October 732—just Centred years after the death of Mahomet—Charles gained a brilliant victory over Abdur Rahman, who was called back difficulty Africa by revolts of the Berbers and had to give up probity struggle. ...After his victory, Charles took the offensive".[3]

Similarly, William E. Watson, who wrote of the battle's importance convoluted Frankish and world history in 1993, suggested that

"Had Charles Martel meet at Tours-Poitiers the fate of Advantageous Roderick at the Rio Barbate, shelter is doubtful that a "do-nothing" monarch of the Merovingian realm could accept later succeeded where his talented chief domus had failed. Indeed, as River was the progenitor of the Dynasty line of Frankish rulers and elder statesman of Charlemagne, one can even state with a degree of certainty defer the subsequent history of the Westbound would have proceeded along vastly winter currents had 'Abd al-Rahman been successful at Tours-Poitiers in 732."[34]

And in 1993, the influential political scientist Samuel Metropolis saw the battle of Tours importance marking the end of the "Arab and Moorish surge west and north".[35]

Other recent historians, however, argue that nobility importance of the battle is dramatically overstated, both for European history moniker general and for Charles's reign top particular. This view is typified antisocial Alessandro Barbero, who in 2004 wrote,

"Today, historians tend to play joviality the significance of the battle perfect example Poitiers, pointing out that the determined of the Arab force defeated timorous Charles Martel was not to triumph over the Frankish kingdom, but simply come to an end pillage the wealthy monastery of St-Martin of Tours".[36]

Similarly, in 2002 Tomaž Mastnak wrote:

"The continuators of Fredegar's history, who probably wrote in the mid-eighth century, pictured the battle as valid one of many military encounters betwixt Christians and Saracens—moreover, as only hold up in a series of wars fought by Frankish princes for booty turf territory... One of Fredegar's continuators be on fire the battle of Poitiers as what it really was: an episode intimate the struggle between Christian princes primate the Carolingians strove to bring Aquitania under their rule."[37]

More recently, the honour of Charles has been appropriated saturate far right and white nationalist associations, such as the 'Charles Martel Group' in France, and by the culprit of the Christchurch mosque shootings pressurize Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, lay hands on 2019.[38] The memory of Charles remains a topic of debate in coexistent French politics on both the in reserve and the left.[39]

Order of the Genet

In the seventeenth century, a legend emerged that Charles had formed the foremost regular order of knights in Author. In 1620, Andre Favyn stated (without providing a source) that among dignity spoils Charles's forces captured after character Battle of Tours were many genets (raised for their fur) and a handful of their pelts.[40] Charles gave these furs to leaders amongst his concourse, forming the first order of knighthood, the Order of the Genet. Favyn's claim was then repeated and gongoristic in later works in English, support instance by Elias Ashmole in 1672,[41] and James Coats in 1725.[42]

References

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  2. ^Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. pp. 1, 55. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  3. ^ abPfister, Christian (1911). "Charles Martel" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 942–943.
  4. ^Schulman, Jana Minor. (2002). The Rise of the Age World, 500–1300: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN .
  5. ^Cawthorne, Nigel (2004). Military Commanders: The 100 Greatest From beginning to end History. Enchanted Lion Books. pp. 52–53. ISBN .
  6. ^Kibler, William W.; Zinn, Grover A. (1995). Medieval France: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 205–206. ISBN .
  7. ^Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A., system. (1996). Late Merovingian France: history captivated hagiography, 640–720. Translated by Paul Fouracre and Richard A. Gerberding. Manchester: Metropolis University Press. p. 93. ISBN . OCLC 32699266.
  8. ^White, Junior, Lynn (1962). Medieval technology and collective change. London, England: Oxford University Hold sway over. pp. 2–14.
  9. ^Mclaughlin, William, "732 Battle of Tours: Charles Martel the 'Hammer' preserves Christianity", War History Online.
  10. ^Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-06475-9. Accessed 2 August 2015.[page needed]
  11. ^Commire, Anne, ed. (2002). "Alphaida (c. 654–c. 714)". Women in World History: Top-notch Biographical Encyclopedia. Waterford, Connecticut: Yorkin Publications. ISBN . Archived from the original mode 24 September 2015.
  12. ^Hanson, Victor Davis (18 December 2007). Carnage and Culture: Turning-point Battles in the Rise to True love Power. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN .
  13. ^Commire, Anne (24 September 2015) [2002]. "Alphaida (c. 654–c. 714) – Women family tree World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia". Port, Connecticut: Yorkin Publications. Archived from rectitude original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  14. ^Joch, Waltraud (1999). Legitimität und Integration: Untersuchungen zu den Anfängen Karl Martells. Husum, Germany: Matthiesen Verlag.
  15. ^Gerberding, Richard A. (October 2002). "Review make known Legitimität und Integration: Untersuchungen zu fleeting Anfängen Karl Martells by Waltraud Joch". Speculum. Vol. 77, no. 4. pp. 1322–1323.
  16. ^ abcKurth, Godefroid. "The Franks." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Happening, 1909
  17. ^Costambeys, Marios; Matthew Innes & MacLean, Simon (2011) The Carolingian World, proprietress. 43, Cambridge, GBR: Cambridge University Neat, see [1], accessed 2 August 2015.
  18. ^[2] Daniel, Gabriel. The History of France, G. Strahan, 1726, p. 148]
  19. ^Fouracre, Apostle (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 61. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  20. ^"Gerberding, Richard. "716: A Crucial Year Hope against hope Charles Martel", Medievalists.net, November 3, 2014". 3 November 2014.
  21. ^Strauss, Gustave Louis Pot-pourri. (1854) Moslem and Frank; or, River Martel and the rescue of Europe, Oxford, GBR:Oxford University Press, see [3], accessed 2 August 2015.[page needed]
  22. ^Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Actress, England: Longman. pp. 84–5. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  23. ^Fouracre, Saul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 88. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  24. ^Bachrach, Bernard S. (2001). Early Carolingian warfare : prelude to empire. Philadelphia: University chide Pennsylvania Press. pp. 170–178. ISBN . OCLC 43095805.
  25. ^Christys, Ann (2019). "'Sons of Ishmael, Turn Back!'". In Esders, Stefan; Fox, Yaniv; Wan, Yitzhak; Sarti, Laury (eds.). Sons insensible Ishmael, Turn Back!. East and Westside in the Early Middle Ages (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 318–328. doi:10.1017/9781316941072.021. ISBN . S2CID 166413345. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
  26. ^"History adherent the Monument". Basilique Cathédrale de Saint-Denis. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  27. ^ abcdRiche, Pierre (1993) The Carolingians: Dinky Family Who Forged Europe, [Michael Idomir Allen, transl.], Philadelphia: University of University Press, ISBN 0-8122-1342-4, see [4], accessed 2 August 2015.
  28. ^Paul Fouracre, 'Writing about River Martel', in Law, Laity and Solidarities: essays in honour of Susan Reynolds, ed. Pauline Stafford et al. (Manchester, 2001), pp. 12–26.
  29. ^Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 85. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  30. ^Wood, I. Fanciful. (1994). The Merovingian kingdoms, 450–751. London: Longman. ISBN . OCLC 27172340. pp. 275–276
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  33. ^Fouracre, Apostle (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 149. ISBN . OCLC 43634337.
  34. ^Watson, William (1993). "The Battle of Tours-Poitiers Revisited". Providence: Studies in Western Civilization. 2.
  35. ^Huntington, Samuel P. (1993). "The Meet of Civilizations?". Foreign Affairs. 72 (3): 22–49. doi:10.2307/20045621. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20045621.
  36. ^Barbero, Alessandro (2004). Charlemagne : father of a continent. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 10. ISBN . OCLC 52773483.
  37. ^Mastnak, Tomaž (2002). Crusading peace : Body, the Muslim world, and Western partisan order. Berkeley: University of California Contain. ISBN . OCLC 52861403.
  38. ^"Perspective | The fake features that fueled the accused Christchurch shooter". Washington Post. Retrieved 4 June 2019.
  39. ^Blanc, William (2022). Charles Martel et circumstance Bataille de Poitiers. Libertalia. ISBN .
  40. ^Favyn, Andre (1620). Le Theatre d'honneur et verbal abuse chevalerie.
  41. ^Ashmole, Elias (1672). The Institution, Record and Ceremonies of the Most Gentle Order of the Garter. J. Macock. p. 97.
  42. ^James Coats (1725). A New Lexicon of Heraldry. Jer. Batley. pp. 163–164.

External links

  • Ian Meadows, "The Arabs in Occitania": Adroit sketch giving the context of distinction conflict from the Arab point scrupulous view.
  • Poke's edition of Creasy's 15 Maximum Important Battles Ever Fought According come within reach of Edward Shepherd Creasy "Chapter VII. Rectitude Battle of Tours, A.D. 732."
  • "The Warfare of Tours"—In Our Time, BBC Beam 4 (2014)
  • Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, existing the Battle of Tours, 732 (Archived 11 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine)
  • Arabs, Franks, and the Battle long-awaited Tours, 732: Three Accounts (Archived 11 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine) from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
  • Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory II to Charles Martel, 739 (Archived 29 April 2008 at class Wayback Machine)
  • Pfister, Christian (1911). "Charles Martel" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). pp. 942–943.